Sains Malaysiana 47(10)(2018): 2543–2556

http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2018-4710-31

 

Challenges in Predicting Risks of Premature Coronary Artery Disease (Pcad)

(Cabaran dalam Meramal Risiko Penyakit Arteri Koronari Pramatang (Pcad))

 

MUHAMMAD FAIZAN A. SHUKOR1,2*, NOOR AKMAL SHAREELA ISMAIL1 & WAN ZURINAH WAN NGAH1

 

1Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, UKM Medical Centre, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Ya’acob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory, Malaysia

 

2Centre for Chemical Defense, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory, Malaysia

 

Received: 21 May 2018 /Accepted: 25 June 2018

 

ABSTRACT

Coronary artery disease (CAD) predominantly manifests in older population above the age of 60 years old. The incidence of CAD in younger individuals has been reported and is called premature CAD (pCAD). The prevalence for pCAD in individuals below 45 years old is about 3-10% worldwide. Advances in risk prediction are of great importance as absolute values of risk factors sometimes correlate poorly with individuals. The measurement of traditional risk factors such as cholesterol level and blood pressure might be inadequate to predict risk for pCAD and therefore new biomarkers are required. The introduction of omics technology offers insight into the mechanism and interactions involved during disease progression and open the possibilities of discovering new biomarkers. Currently, new potential biomarkers for pCAD have been explored such as homocysteine, apolipoproteins, microRNAs and single nucleotide polymorphisms. In this review, we discussed the associated risk factors for pCAD, several reported and newly proposed biomarkers and their potential to be used clinically.

 

Keywords: Atherosclerosis; biomarker; premature coronary artery disease

 

ABSTRAK

Penyakit arteri koronari (CAD) sering berlaku dalam populasi yang berumur 60 tahun ke atas. Walau bagaimanapun, kejadian dalam individu muda yang dipanggil CAD pramatang (pCAD) telah dilaporkan. Prevalens pCAD bagi individu di bawah umur 45 tahun adalah 3-10% di seluruh dunia. Kemajuan dalam meramal risiko adalah penting kerana nilai faktor risiko mutlak kadangkala berkorelasi lemah dengan individu. Pengukuran faktor risiko tradisi seperti paras kolesterol dan tekanan darah mungkin tidak mencukupi untuk meramal risiko pCAD, oleh itu penanda biologi baru diperlukan. Pengenalan teknologi omik memberikan lebih kefahaman terhadap mekanisme dan interaksi yang berlaku sewaktu perkembangan penyakit dan membuka kemungkinan untuk penemuan penanda biologi baru. Ketika ini, penanda biologi pCAD yang baru telah diteroka seperti homosisteina, apolipoprotein, mikroRNA dan polimorfisma nukleotida tunggal. Dalam ulasan ini, kami membincangkan tentang faktor risiko pCAD yang berkaitan, beberapa penanda biologi yang dilaporkan dan yang baru dicadangkan dan potensi mereka untuk digunakan secara klinikal.

 

Kata kunci: Aterosklerosis; penanda biologi; penyakit koronari arteri pramatang

REFERENCES

Abdel-Aziz, T.A. & Mohamed, R.H. 2013a. Association of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms with classical risk factors in development of premature coronary artery disease. Molecular Biology Reports 40(4): 3065-3071.

Abdel-Aziz, T.A. & Mohamed, R.H. 2013b. Human C-reactive protein gene polymorphism and metabolic syndrome are associated with premature coronary artery disease. Gene 532(2): 216-221.

Ahmad, W.A., Ali, R.M., Khanom, M., Han, C.K., Bang, L.H., Yip, A.F., Ghazi, A.M., Ismail, O., Zambahari, R. & Hian, S.K. 2013. The journey of Malaysian Ncvd-Pci (National Cardiovascular Disease Database-Percutaneous Coronary Intervention) Registry: A Summary of three years report. Int. J. Cardiol. 165(1): 161-164.

Ai, J., Zhang, R., Li, Y., Pu, J., Lu, Y., Jiao, J., Li, K., Bo, Yu., Li, Z., Wang, R., Wang, L., Li, Q., Wang, N., Shan, H., Li, Z. & Yang, B. 2010. Circulating microRNA-1 as a potential novel biomarker for acute myocardial infarction. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 391(1): 73-77.

Albert, C.M., Cook, N.R., Gaziano, J.M., Zaharris, E., Macfadyen, J., Danielson, E., Buring, J.E. & Manson, J.E. 2008. Effect of folic acid and b vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: A randomized trial. JAMA 299(17): 2027-2036.

Armitage, J.M., Bowman, L., Clarke, R.J., Wallendszus, K., Bulbulia, R., Rahimi, K., Haynes, R., Parish, S., Sleight, P., Peto, R. & Collins, R. 2010. Effects of homocysteine-lowering with folic acid plus vitamin b12 vs placebo on mortality and major morbidity in myocardial infarction survivors: A randomized trial. JAMA 303(24): 2486-2494.

Arzamendi, D., Benito, B., Tizon-Marcos, H., Flores, J., Tanguay, J.F., Ly, H., Doucet, S., Leduc, L., Leung, T.K., Campuzano, O., Iglesias, A., Talajic, M. & Brugada, R. 2011. Increase in sudden death from coronary artery disease in young adults. Am. Heart J. 161(3): 574-580.

Ayyobi, A.F., Zambon, A. & Brunzell, J.D. 2007. Premature coronary artery disease and apolipoprotein b and apolipoprotein a-i. International Congress Series 1303: 85-94.

Azizi, F., Rahmani, M., Raiszadeh, F., Solati, M. & Navab, M. 2002. Association of lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins and paraoxonase enzyme activity with premature coronary artery disease. Coron. Artery Dis. 13(1): 9-16.

Bostjancic, E., Zidar, N., Stajner, D. & Glavac, D. 2010. MicroRNA miR-1 is up-regulated in remote myocardium in patients with myocardial infarction. Folia biologica 56(1): 27-31.

Brown, B.D., Nsengimana, J., Barrett, J.H., Lawrence, R.A., Steiner, L., Cheng, S., Bishop, D.T., Samani, N.J., Ball, S.G., Balmforth, A.J. & Hall, A.S. 2010. An evaluation of inflammatory gene polymorphisms in sibships discordant for premature coronary artery disease: The grace-immune study. BMC Med. 8: 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-5.

Castelli, W.P. 1996. Lipids, risk factors and ischaemic heart disease. Atherosclerosis 124: S1-S9.

Che, J., Li, G., Shao, Y., Niu, H. & Shi, Y. 2013. An analysis of the risk factors for premature coronary artery disease in young and middle-age chinese patients with hypertension. Exp. Clin. Cardiol. 18(2): 89-92.2444

Choi, J., Daskalopoulou, S.S., Thanassoulis, G., Karp, I., Pelletier, R., Behlouli, H., Pilote, L. & Investigators, G.P. 2014. Sex- and gender-related risk factor burden in patients with premature acute coronary syndrome. Can. J. Cardiol. 30(1): 109-117.

Christus, T., Shukkur, A.M., Rashdan, I., Koshy, T., Alanbaei, M., Zubaid, M., Hayat, N. & Alsayegh, A. 2011. Coronary artery disease in patients aged 35 or less - A different beast? Heart Views 12(1): 7-11.

Collet, J.P., Allali, Y., Lesty, C., Tanguy, M.L., Silvain, J., Ankri, A., Blanchet, B., Dumaine, R., Gianetti, J., Payot, L., Weisel, J.W. & Montalescot, G. 2006. Altered fibrin architecture is associated with hypofibrinolysis and premature coronary atherothrombosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 26(11): 2567-2573.

Cordes, K.R. & Srivastava, D. 2009. Microrna regulation of cardiovascular development. Circ. Res. 04(6): 724-732.

Cunningham, K.S. & Gotlieb, A.I. 2005. The role of shear stress in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Lab. Invest. 85(1): 9-23.

De Rosa, S., Curcio, A. & Indolfi, C. 2014. Emerging role of micrornas in cardiovascular diseases. Circ. J. 78(3): 567-575.

Demircan, S., Yazici, M., Durna, K., Kilicaslan, F., Demir, S., Pinar, M. & Gulel, O. 2009. The importance of gamma-glutamyltransferase activity in patients with coronary artery disease. Clin. Cardiol. 32(4): 220-225.

Derkacz, A., Protasiewicz, M., Poreba, R., Doroszko, A., Poreba, M., Antonowicz-Juchniewicz, J., Andrzejak, R. & Szuba, A. 2011. Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine predicts restenosis after coronary angioplasty. Arch. Med. Sci. 7(3): 444-448.

Dey, S., Flather, M.D., Devlin, G., Brieger, D., Gurfinkel, E.P., Steg, P.G., Fitzgerald, G., Jackson, E.A., Eagle, K.A. & Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events, I. 2009. Sex-related differences in the presentation, treatment and outcomes among patients with acute coronary syndromes: The global registry of acute coronary events. Heart 95(1): 20-26.

Dobrovolskienė, R., Mockevičienė, G., Urbonaitė, B., Jurgevičienė, N., Preikša, R.T. & Ostrauskas, R. 2013. The risk of early cardiovascular disease in lithuanian diabetic children and adolescents: A type 1 diabetes register database based study. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 100(1): 119-125.

Eftychiou, C., Antoniades, L., Makri, L., Koumas, L., Costeas, P.A., Kyriakou, E., Nicolaides, E. & Papadogiannis, D. 2012. Homocysteine levels and mthfr polymorphisms in young patients with acute myocardial infarction: A case control study. Hellenic J. Cardiol. 53(3): 189-194.

Egiziano, G., Akhtari, S., Pilote, L., Daskalopoulou, S.S. & Investigators, G. 2013. Sex differences in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Diabet. Med. 30(3): e108-e114.

Emdin, M., Pompella, A. & Paolicchi, A. 2005. Gamma-glutamyltransferase, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease: Triggering oxidative stress within the plaque. Circulation 112(14): 2078-2080.

Ernst, E. 1993. Regular exercise reduces fibrinogen levels: A review of longitudinal studies. Br. J. Sports. Med. 27(3): 175-176.

Faraci, F.M. 2003. Hyperhomocysteinemia: A million ways to lose control. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23(3): 371-373.

Folsom, A.R., Qamhieh, H.T., Flack, J.M., Hilner, J.E., Liu, K., Howard, B.V. & Tracy, R.P. 1993. Plasma fibrinogen: Levels and correlates in young adults. The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 138(12): 1023-1036.

Foody, J.M., Milberg, J.A., Robinson, K., Pearce, G.L., Jacobsen, D.W. & Sprecher, D.L. 2000. Homocysteine and lipoprotein(a) interact to increase cad risk in young men and women. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20(2): 493-499.

Fraser, A., Harris, R., Sattar, N., Ebrahim, S., Smith, G.D. & Lawlor, D.A. 2007. Gamma-glutamyltransferase is associated with incident vascular events independently of alcohol intake: Analysis of the british women’s heart and health study and meta-analysis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27(12): 2729-2735.

Freedman, J.E., Ercan, B., Morin, K.M., Liu, C.T., Tamer, L., Ayaz, L., Kanadasi, M., Cicek, D., Seyhan, A.I., Akilli, R.E., Camci, C., Cengiz, B., Oztuzcu, S. & Tanriverdil Kahraman. 2012. The distribution of circulating microRNA and their relation to coronary disease. F1000 Research 1: 50.

Gad, M.Z., Hassanein, S.I., Abdel-Maksoud, S.M., Shaban, G.M., Abou-Aisha, K. & Elgabarty, H.A. 2010. Assessment of serum levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine and l-arginine in coronary artery disease. Biomarkers 15(8): 746-752.

Ghazouani, L., Abboud, N., Ben Hadj Khalifa, S., Added, F., Ben Khalfallah, A., Nsiri, B., Mediouni, M. & Mahjoub, T. 2011. -174g>c interleukin-6 gene polymorphism in tunisian patients with coronary artery disease. Ann. Saudi Med. 31(1): 40-44.

Goff, D.C., Jr., Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Bennett, G., Coady, S., D’agostino, R.B., Gibbons, R., Greenland, P., Lackland, D.T., Levy, D., O’donnell, C.J., Robinson, J.G., Schwartz, J.S., Shero, S.T., Smith, S.C., Jr., Sorlie, P., Stone, N.J., Wilson, P.W., Jordan, H.S., Nevo, L., Wnek, J., Anderson, J.L., Halperin, J.L., Albert, N.M., Bozkurt, B., Brindis, R.G., Curtis, L.H., Demets, D., Hochman, J.S., Kovacs, R.J., Ohman, E.M., Pressler, S.J., Sellke, F.W., Shen, W.K., Smith, S.C., Jr., Tomaselli, G.F. & American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice, G. 2014. 2013 acc/aha guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: A report of the american college of cardiology/american heart association task force on practice guidelines. Circulation 129: S49-S73.

Graham, I.M., Daly, L.E., Refsum, H.M., Robinson, K., Brattstrom, L.E., Ueland, P.M., Palma-Reis, R.J., Boers, G.H., Sheahan, R.G., Israelsson, B., Uiterwaal, C.S., Meleady, R., Mcmaster, D., Verhoef, P., Witteman, J., Rubba, P., Bellet, H., Wautrecht, J.C., De Valk, H.W., Sales Luis, A.C., Parrot- Rouland, F.M., Tan, K.S., Higgins, I., Garcon, D. & Andria, G. 1997. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. The European concerted action project. JAMA 277(22): 1775-1781.

Gupta, S.K., Kotwal, J., Kotwal, A., Dhall, A. & Garg, S. 2012. Role of homocysteine & mthfr c677t gene polymorphism as risk factors for coronary artery disease in young indians. Indian J. Med. Res.135(4): 506-512.

Hagiwara, S., Kantharidis, P. & Cooper, M.E. 2014. Microrna as biomarkers and regulator of cardiovascular development and disease. Curr. Pharm. Des. 20(14): 2347-2370.

Hbejan, K. 2011. Smoking effect on ischemic heart disease in young patients. Heart Views 12(1): 1-6.

Heiskanen, M., Kahonen, M., Hurme, M., Lehtimaki, T., Mononen, N., Juonala, M., Hutri-Kahonen, N., Viikari, J., Raitakari, O. & Hulkkonen, J. 2010. Polymorphism in the il10 promoter region and early markers of atherosclerosis: The cardiovascular risk in young finns study. Atherosclerosis 208(1): 190-196.

Herrick, S., Blanc-Brude, O., Gray, A. & Laurent, G. 1999. Fibrinogen. Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Biol. 31(7): 741-746.

Hoekstra, M., van der Lans, C.A., Halvorsen, B., Gullestad, L., Kuiper, J., Aukrust, P., van Berkela, T.J.C. & Biessenae, E.A.L. 2010. The peripheral blood mononuclear cell microRNA signature of coronary artery disease. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 394(3): 792-797.

Hozawa, A., Houston, T., Steffes, M.W., Widome, R., Williams, O.D., Iribarren, C., Pletcher, M.J., Daviglus, M.L., Carr, J.J. & Jacobs, D.R., Jr. 2006. The association of cigarette smoking with self-reported disease before middle age: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Prev. Med. 42(3): 193-199.

Hunter, K.A., Garlick, P.J., Broom, I., Anderson, S.E. & Mcnurlan, M.A. 2001. Effects of smoking and abstention from smoking on fibrinogen synthesis in humans. Clin. Sci. (Lond) 100(4): 459-465.

Karaca, E., Kayikcioglu, M., Onay, H., Gunduz, C. & Ozkinay, F. 2011. The effect of interleukin-10 gene promoter polymorphisms on early-onset coronary artery disease. Anadolu Kardiyol. Derg. 11(4): 285-289.

Kathiresan, S., Melander, O., Anevski, D., Guiducci, C., Burtt, N.P., Roos, C., Hirschhorn, J.N., Berglund, G., Hedblad, B., Groop, L., Altshuler, D.M., Newton-Cheh, C. & Orho-Melander, M. 2008. Polymorphisms associated with cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular events. N. Engl. J. Med. 358(12): 1240-1249.

Kaul, S., Zadeh, A.A. & Shah, P.K. 2006. Homocysteine hypothesis for atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease: Not validated. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48(5): 914-923.

Kunjathoor, V.V., Febbraio, M., Podrez, E.A., Moore, K.J., Andersson, L., Koehn, S., Rhee, J.S., Silverstein, R., Hoff, H.F. & Freeman, M.W. 2002. Scavenger receptors class a-i/ii and cd36 are the principal receptors responsible for the uptake of modified low density lipoprotein leading to lipid loading in macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 277(51): 49982-49988.

Kwiterovich, P.O., Jr., Coresh, J., Smith, H.H., Bachorik, P.S., Derby, C.A. & Pearson, T.A. 1992. Comparison of the plasma levels of apolipoproteins b and a-1, and other risk factors in men and women with premature coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 69(12): 1015-1021.

Lansky, A.J., Ng, V.G., Maehara, A., Weisz, G., Lerman, A., Mintz, G.S., De Bruyne, B., Farhat, N., Niess, G., Jankovic, I., Lazar, D., Xu, K., Fahy, M., Serruys, P.W. & Stone, G.W. 2012. Gender and the extent of coronary atherosclerosis, plaque composition, and clinical outcomes in acute coronary syndromes. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 5(3): S62-S72.

Lee, D.H., Jacobs, D.R., Jr., Gross, M., Kiefe, C.I., Roseman, J., Lewis, C.E. & Steffes, M. 2003. Gamma-glutamyltransferase is a predictor of incident diabetes and hypertension: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Clin. Chem. 49(8): 1358-1366.

Lee, D.S., Evans, J.C., Robins, S.J., Wilson, P.W., Albano, I., Fox, C.S., Wang, T.J., Benjamin, E.J., D’agostino, R.B. & Vasan, R.S. 2007. Gamma glutamyl transferase and metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and mortality risk: The framingham heart study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27(1): 127-133.

Lee, J.Y., Lee, B.S., Shin, D.J., Woo Park, K., Shin, Y.A., Joong Kim, K., Heo, L., Young Lee, J., Kyoung Kim, Y., Jin Kim, Y., Bum Hong, C., Lee, S.H., Yoon, D., Jung Ku, H., Oh, I.Y., Kim, B.J., Lee, J., Park, S.J., Kim, J., Kawk, H.K., Lee, J.E., Park, H.K., Lee, J.E., Nam, H.Y., Park, H.Y., Shin, C., Yokota, M., Asano, H., Nakatochi, M., Matsubara, T., Kitajima, H., Yamamoto, K., Kim, H.L., Han, B.G., Cho, M.C., Jang, Y., Kim, H.S., Euy Park, J. & Lee, J.Y. 2013. A genome-wide association study of a coronary artery disease risk variant. J. Hum. Genet. 58(3): 120-126.

Leiper, J. & Vallance, P. 1999. Biological significance of endogenous methylarginines that inhibit nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc. Res. 43(3): 542-548.

Li, K., Zhang, T., Fan, H., Li, Q., Ito, W., Torzewski, J., Guo, J. & Liu, Z. 2014. The analysis of microRNA expression profiling for coronary artery disease. Cardiology 127(1): 62-69.

Libby, P. 2012. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 32(9): 2045-2051.

Lin, J., Kakkar, V. & Lu, X. 2014. Impact of matrix metalloproteinases on atherosclerosis. Curr. Drug Targets 15(4): 442-453.

Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Nam, B.H., D’agostino, R.B., Sr., Levy, D., Murabito, J.M., Wang, T.J., Wilson, P.W. & O’donnell, C.J. 2004. Parental cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: A prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA 291(18): 2204-2211.

Lu, H.Q., Liang, C., He, Z.Q., Fan, M. & Wu, Z.G. 2013. Circulating miR-214 is associated with the severity of coronary artery disease. Journal of Geriatric Cardiology: JGC. 10(1): 34-38.

Lu, H.T. & Nordin, R.B. 2013. Ethnic differences in the occurrence of acute coronary syndrome: Results of the Malaysian national cardiovascular disease (ncvd) database registry (March 2006- February 2010). BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 13(1): 97. doi: 10.1186/1471-2261-13-97.

Maas, R., Schulze, F., Baumert, J., Lowel, H., Hamraz, K., Schwedhelm, E., Koenig, W. & Boger, R.H. 2007. Asymmetric dimethylarginine, smoking, and risk of coronary heart disease in apparently healthy men: Prospective analysis from the population-based monitoring of trends and determinants in cardiovascular disease/kooperative gesundheitsforschung in der region augsburg study and experimental data. Clin. Chem. 53(4): 693-701.

Madamanchi, N.R., Vendrov, A. & Runge, M.S. 2005. Oxidative stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25(1): 29-38.

Mamatha, S.N., Nagaraja, D., Philip, M. & Christopher, R. 2011. Asymmetric dimethylarginine as a risk marker for early-onset ischemic stroke in Indian population. Clin. Chim. Acta. 412(1-2): 139-142.

Mao, Y., Qi, X., Xu, W., Song, H., Xu, M., Ma, W. & Zhou, L. 2014. Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase: A novel biomarker for coronary artery disease. Med. Sci. Monit. 20: 706-710.

Meinitzer, A., Kielstein, J.T., Pilz, S., Drechsler, C., Ritz, E., Boehm, B.O., Winkelmann, B.R. & Marz, W. 2011. Symmetrical and asymmetrical dimethylarginine as predictors for mortality in patients referred for coronary angiography: The ludwigshafen risk and cardiovascular health study. Clin. Chem. 57(1): 112-121.

Milcent, C., Dormont, B., Durand-Zaleski, I. & Steg, P.G. 2007. Gender differences in hospital mortality and use of percutaneous coronary intervention in acute myocardial infarction: Microsimulation analysis of the 1999 nationwide French hospitals database. Circulation 115(7): 833-839.

Mills, J., Mansfield, M. & Grant, P. 2002. Elevated fibrinogen in the healthy male relatives of patients with severe, premature coronary artery disease. Eur. Heart J. 23(16): 1276-1281.2446

Mohan, V., Deepa, R., Rani, S.S., Premalatha, G. & Chennai Urban Population, S. 2001. Prevalence of coronary artery disease and its relationship to lipids in a selected population in south india: The chennai urban population study (cups no. 5). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38(3): 682-687.

Morillas, P., Bertomeu, V., Pabon, P., Ancillo, P., Bermejo, J., Fernandez, C., Aros, F. & Investigators, P.I. 2007. Characteristics and outcome of acute myocardial infarction in young patients. The priamho ii study. Cardiology 107(4): 217-225.

Nakanishi, N., Suzuki, K. & Tatara, K. 2004. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Japanese men. Diabetes Care 27(6): 1427-1432.

Napoli, C., D’armiento, F.P., Mancini, F.P., Postiglione, A., Witztum, J.L., Palumbo, G. & Palinski, W. 1997. Fatty streak formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment into early atherosclerotic lesions. J. Clin. Invest. 100(11): 2680-2690.

Naya, M., Morita, K., Yoshinaga, K., Manabe, O., Goto, D., Hirata, K., Katoh, C., Tamaki, N. & Tsutsui, H. 2011. Long-term smoking causes more advanced coronary endothelial dysfunction in middle-aged smokers compared to young smokers. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 38(3): 491-498.

Nichols, M., Townsend, N., Scarborough, P. & Rayner, M. 2014. Cardiovascular disease in Europe 2014: Epidemiological update. Eur. Heart J. 35(42): 2950-2959.

Niemiec, P., Gorczynska-Kosiorz, S., Iwanicki, T., Krauze, J., Trautsolt, W., Grzeszczak, W., Bochenek, A. & Zak, I. 2012. The rs10757278 polymorphism of the 9p21.3 locus is associated with premature coronary artery disease in Polish patients. Genetic Testing and Molecular Biomarker 16(9): 1080-1085.

Niemiec, P., Nowak, T., Iwanicki, T., Krauze, J., Gorczynska- Kosiorz, S., Grzeszczak, W., Ochalska-Tyka, A. & Zak, I. 2014. The -930A>G polymorphism of the CYBA gene is associated with premature coronary artery disease. A case-control study and gene-risk factors interactions. Molecular Biology Reports 41(5): 3287-3294.

Okwuosa, T.M., Klein, O., Chan, C., Jenny, N.S., Schreiner, P., Green, D. & Liu, K. 2013. 13-year long-term associations between changes in traditional cardiovascular risk factors and changes in fibrinogen levels: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Atherosclerosis 226(1): 214-219.

Olson, E.N. 2014. Micrornas as therapeutic targets and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Sci. Transl. Med. 6(239): 239-233.

Onat, A., Can, G., Ornek, E., Cicek, G., Ayhan, E. & Dogan, Y. 2012. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase: Independent predictor of risk of diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and coronary disease. Obesity (Silver Spring) 20(4): 842-848.

Otaki, Y., Gransar, H., Berman, D.S., Cheng, V.Y., Dey, D., Lin, F.Y., Achenbach, S., Al-Mallah, M., Budoff, M.J., Cademartiri, F., Callister, T.Q., Chang, H.J., Chinnaiyan, K., Chow, B.J., Delago, A., Hadamitzky, M., Hausleiter, J., Kaufmann, P., Maffei, E., Raff, G., Shaw, L.J., Villines, T.C., Dunning, A. & Min, J.K. 2013. Impact of family history of coronary artery disease in young individuals (from the confirm registry). Am. J. Cardiol. 111(8): 1081-1086.

Ozaki, K. & Leonard, W.J. 2002. Cytokine and cytokine receptor pleiotropy and redundancy. J. Biol. Chem. 277(33): 29355- 29358.

Paiva, H., Kahonen, M., Lehtimaki, T., Raitakari, O.T., Jula, A., Viikari, J., Alfthan, G., Juonala, M., Laaksonen, R. & Hutri- Kahonen, N. 2008. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (adma) has a role in regulating systemic vascular tone in young healthy subjects: The cardiovascular risk in young finns study. Am. J. Hypertens. 21(8): 873-878.

Peden, J.F. & Farrall, M. 2011. Thirty-five common variants for coronary artery disease: The fruits of much collaborative labour. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20(R2): R198-R205.

Pineda, J., Marin, F., Roldan, V., Valencia, J., Marco, P. & Sogorb, F. 2008. Premature myocardial infarction: Clinical profile and angiographic findings. Int. J. Cardiol. 126(1): 127-129.

Phulukdaree, A., Khan, S., Ramkaran, P., Govender, R., Moodley, D. & Chuturgoon, A.A. 2013. The interleukin-6 -147 g/c polymorphism is associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease in young South African Indian men. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders 11(3): 205-209.

Poon, S., Goodman, S.G., Yan, R.T., Bugiardini, R., Bierman, A.S., Eagle, K.A., Johnston, N., Huynh, T., Grondin, F.R., Schenck-Gustafsson, K. & Yan, A.T. 2012. Bridging the gender gap: Insights from a contemporary analysis of sex-related differences in the treatment and outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes. Am. Heart. J. 163(1): 66-73.

Prescott, E., Hippe, M., Schnohr, P., Hein, H.O. & Vestbo, J. 1998. Smoking and risk of myocardial infarction in women and men: Longitudinal population study. BMJ 316(7137): 1043-1047.

Radovanovic, D., Erne, P., Urban, P., Bertel, O., Rickli, H., Gaspoz, J.M. & Investigators, A.P. 2007. Gender differences in management and outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes: Results on 20,290 patients from the amis plus registry. Heart 93(11): 1369-1375.

Ray, K.K., Cannon, C.P., Cairns, R., Morrow, D.A., Ridker, P.M. & Braunwald, E. 2009. Prognostic utility of apob/ai, total cholesterol/hdl, non-hdl cholesterol, or hs-crp as predictors of clinical risk in patients receiving statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes: Results from prove it-timi 22. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 29(3): 424-430.

Reibis, R., Treszl, A., Wegscheider, K., Bestehorn, K., Karmann, B. & Voller, H. 2012. Disparity in risk factor pattern in premature versus late-onset coronary artery disease: A survey of 15,381 patients. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 8: 473-481.

Ripatti, S., Tikkanen, E., Orho-Melander, M., Havulinna, A.S., Silander, K., Sharma, A., Guiducci, C., Perola, M., Jula, A., Sinisalo, J., Lokki, M.L., Nieminen, M.S., Melander, O., Salomaa, V., Peltonen, L. & Kathiresan, S. 2010. A multilocus genetic risk score for coronary heart disease: Case-control and prospective cohort analyses. Lancet 376(9750): 1393-1400.

Ross, R. 1993. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: A perspective for the 1990s. Nature 362(6423): 801-809.

Ruiz-Garcia, J., Lerman, A., Weisz, G., Maehara, A., Mintz, G.S., Fahy, M., Xu, K., Lansky, A.J., Cristea, E., Farah, T.G., Teles, R., Botker, H.E., Templin, B., Zhang, Z., De Bruyne, B., Serruys, P.W. & Stone, G.W. 2012. Age- and gender-related changes in plaque composition in patients with acute coronary syndrome: The prospect study. EuroIntervention 8(8): 929-938.

Sadeghian, S., Fallahi, F., Salarifar, M., Davoodi, G., Mahmoodian, M., Fallah, N., Darvish, S., Karimi, A. & Tehran Heart, C. 2006. Homocysteine, vitamin b12 and folate levels in 2447

premature coronary artery disease. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 6: 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2261-6-38.

Saito, H., Lund-Katz, S. & Phillips, M.C. 2004. Contributions of domain structure and lipid interaction to the functionality of exchangeable human apolipoproteins. Prog. Lipid Res. 43(4): 350-380.

Satoh, H., Nishino, T., Tomita, K., Saijo, Y., Kishi, R. & Tsutsui, H. 2006. Risk factors and the incidence of coronary artery disease in young middle-aged Japanese men: Results from a 10-year cohort study. Intern. Med. 45(5): 235-239.

Satti, H.S., Hussain, S. & Javed, Q. 2013. Association of interleukin-6 gene promoter polymorphism with coronary artery disease in Pakistani families. Scientific World Journal 2013: 538365.

Sekuri, C., Cam, F.S., Sagcan, A., Ercan, E., Tengiz, I., Alioglu, E. & Berdeli, A. 2007. No association of interleukin-6 gene polymorphism (-174 g/c) with premature coronary artery disease in a turkish cohort. Coron. Artery Dis. 18(5): 333-337.

Sesso, H.D., Lee, I.M., Gaziano, J.M., Rexrode, K.M., Glynn, R.J. & Buring, J.E. 2001. Maternal and paternal history of myocardial infarction and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women. Circulation 104(4): 393-398.

Shabbir, S., Khan, D.A., Khan, F.A., Elahi, M.M. & Matata, B.M. 2011. Serum gamma glutamyl transferase: A novel biomarker for screening of premature coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc. Revasc. Med. 12(6): 367-374.

Shehab, A., Al-Dabbagh, B., Alhabib, K.F., Alsheikh-Ali, A.A., Almahmeed, W., Sulaiman, K., Al-Motarreb, A., Nagelkerke, N., Al Suwaidi, J., Hersi, A., Al Faleh, H., Asaad, N., Al Saif, S. & Amin, H. 2013. Gender disparities in the presentation, management and outcomes of acute coronary syndrome patients: Data from the 2nd gulf registry of acute coronary events (gulf race-2). PLoS One 8(2): e55508.

Shojaie, M., Pourahmad, M., Eshraghian, A., Izadi, H.R. & Naghshvar, F. 2009. Fibrinogen as a risk factor for premature myocardial infarction in iranian patients: A case control study. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 5: 673-676.

Siegerink, B., Maas, R., Vossen, C.Y., Schwedhelm, E., Koenig, W., Boger, R., Rothenbacher, D., Brenner, H. & Breitling, L.P. 2013. Asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginine and risk of secondary cardiovascular disease events and mortality in patients with stable coronary heart disease: The karola follow-up study. Clin. Res. Cardiol. 102(3): 193-202.

Siemelink, M.A. & Zeller, T. 2014. Biomarkers of coronary artery disease: The promise of the transcriptome. Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 16(8): 513.

Sondermeijer, B.M., Bakker, A., Halliani, A., De Ronde, M.W., Marquart, A.A., Tijsen, A.J., Mulders, T.A., Kok, M.G., Battjes, S., Maiwald, S., Sivapalaratnam, S., Trip, M.D., Moerland, P.D., Meijers, J.C., Creemers, E.E. & Pinto- Sietsma, S.J. 2011. Platelets in patients with premature coronary artery disease exhibit upregulation of mirna340* and mirna624*. PLoS One 6(10): e25946.

St-Pierre, A.C., Cantin, B., Dagenais, G.R., Mauriege, P., Bernard, P.M., Despres, J.P. & Lamarche, B. 2005. Low-density lipoprotein subfractions and the long-term risk of ischemic heart disease in men: 13-year follow-up data from the quebec cardiovascular study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25(3): 553-559.

Sun, X., Zhang, M., Sanagawa, A., Mori, C., Ito, S., Iwaki, S., Satoh, H. & Fujii, S. 2012. Circulating microRNA-126 in patients with coronary artery disease: Correlation with LDL cholesterol. Thrombosis Journal 10(1): 16.

Taraboanta, C., Hague, C.J., Mancini, G.B., Forster, B.B. & Frohlich, J. 2012. Coronary artery calcium findings in asymptomatic subjects with family history of premature coronary artery disease. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 12: 53.

Tatli, E., Ozcelik, F. & Aktoz, M. 2009. Plasma fibrinogen level may predict critical coronary artery stenosis in young adults with myocardial infarction. Cardiol. J. 16(4): 317-320.

Tolstrup, J.S., Hvidtfeldt, U.A., Flachs, E.M., Spiegelman, D., Heitmann, B.L., Balter, K., Goldbourt, U., Hallmans, G., Knekt, P., Liu, S., Pereira, M., Stevens, J., Virtamo, J. & Feskanich, D. 2014. Smoking and risk of coronary heart disease in younger, middle-aged, and older adults. Am. J. Public Health 104(1): 96-102.

Uddin, S.N., Siddiqui, N.I., Bagum, F., Malik, F., Rahman, S. & Ali, M.S. 2004. Coronary artery disease in young adults - angiographic profile. Mymensingh Med. J. 13(1): 11-15.

Wan Ahmad, W.A. & Sim, K.H. 2013. Annual Report of the NCVD-ACS Registry, 2009 & 2010. National Cardiovascular Disease Database, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Wang, F., Long, G., Zhao, C., Li, H., Chaugai, S., Wang, Y., Chen, C. & Wang, D.W. 2013. Plasma microRNA-133a is a new marker for both acute myocardial infarction and underlying coronary artery stenosis. Journal of Translational Medicine 11: 222.

Watkins, H. & Farrall, M. 2006. Genetic susceptibility to coronary artery disease: From promise to progress. Nat. Rev. Genet. 7(3): 163-173.

Weber, M., Baker, M.B., Patel, R.S., Quyyumi, A.A., Bao, G. & Searles, C.D. 2011. Microrna expression profile in cad patients and the impact of acei/arb. Cardiol. Res. Pract. 2011: 532915.

Weber, M., Mcnicoll, S., Marcil, M., Connelly, P., Lussier-Cacan, S., Davignon, J., Latour, Y. & Genest, J. Jr. 1997. Metabolic factors clustering, lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein b, lipoprotein (a) and apolipoprotein e phenotypes in premature coronary artery disease in french canadians. Can. J. Cardiol. 13(3): 253-260.

Wilkins, J.T., Gidding, S., Liu, K., Ning, H., Polak, J.F. & Lloyd- Jones, D.M. 2014. Associations between a parental history of premature cardiovascular disease and coronary artery calcium and carotid intima-media thickness: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 21(5): 601-607.

Wilson, P.W., D’agostino, R.B., Levy, D., Belanger, A.M., Silbershatz, H. & Kannel, W.B. 1998. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 97(18): 1837-1847.

Yancey, P.G., Bortnick, A.E., Kellner-Weibel, G., De La Llera-Moya, M., Phillips, M.C. & Rothblat, G.H. 2003. Importance of different pathways of cellular cholesterol efflux. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23(5): 712-719.

Yayan, J. 2013. Emerging families of biomarkers for coronary artery disease: Inflammatory mediators. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 9: 435-456.

Yunus, A.M., Sherina, M., Nor Afiah, M., Rampal, L. & Tiew, K. 2004. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in a rural community in mukim Dengkil, Selangor. Malays. J. Nutr. 10(1): 5-11.

Zhu, C., Xiong, Z., Zheng, Z., Chen, Y., Qian, X. & Chen, X. 2013. Association of serum gamma-glutamyltransferase with arterial stiffness in established coronary artery disease. Angiology 64(1): 15-20.2448

Zieske, A.W., Mcmahan, C.A., Mcgill, H.C., Jr., Homma, S., Takei, H., Malcom, G.T., Tracy, R.E. & Strong, J.P. 2005. Smoking is associated with advanced coronary atherosclerosis in youth. Atherosclerosis 180(1): 87-92.

Zieske, A.W., Takei, H., Fallon, K.B. & Strong, J.P. 1999. Smoking and atherosclerosis in youth. Atherosclerosis 144(2): 403-408.

 

*Corresponding author; email: mfaizanshukor@gmail.com

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

previous